Journal Entries:

***The Ordeal***

In Germanic law, the ordeal was used as a means by which accused persons might clear themselves. All ordeals involved a physical trial of some sort, such as holding a red-hot iron. It was believed that God would protect the innocent and allow them to come through the ordeal unharmed. This sixth-century account by Gregory of Tours describes an ordeal by hot water.

Gregory of Tours, Describing an Ordeal by Water

An Arian priest disputing with a deacon of our religion [Roman Catholic] spoke harshly against the Son of God and the Holy Ghost, as is the habit of that sect [the Arians]. But when the deacon had spoken a long time concerning the reasonableness of our faith and the heretic, blinded by the fog of unbelief, continued to reject the truth, ...the deacon said: "Why weary ourselves with long discussions? Let acts approve the truth; let a kettle be heated over the fire and someone's ring be thrown into the boiling water. Let him who shall take it from the heated liquid be approved as a follower of the truth, and afterwards let the other party be converted to the knowledge of the truth. And do you also understand, O heretic, that this our party will fulfill the conditions with the aid of the Holy Ghost, you shall confess that you are wrong." The heretic consented and they separated after appointing the next morning for the trial.

But the fervor of faith in which the deacon had first made this suggestion began to cool through the instigation of the enemy [Satan]. Rising with the dawn he bathed his arm in oil and smeared it with ointment. About the third hour they met in the market place. The people came together to see the show. A fire was lighted, the kettle was placed upon it, and when it grew very hot the ring was thrown into the boiling water. The deacon invited the heretic to take it out of the water first. But he promptly refused, saying, "You who did propose this trial are the one to take it out." The deacon all of a tremble bared his arm. And when the heretic priest saw it smeared with ointment he cried out: "With magic arts you thought to protect yourself, but what you have done will not avail." While they were thus quarreling there came up a deacon from Ravenna named Iacinthus and inquired what the trouble was about. When he learned the truth he drew his arm out from under his robe at once and plunged his right hand into the kettle. Now the ring that had been thrown in was a little thing and very light so that it was thrown about by the water; and searching for it a long time he found it after about an hour. Meanwhile the flame beneath the kettle blazed up mightily so that the greater heat might make it difficult for the ring to be followed by the hand; but the deacon extracted it at length and suffered no harm, saying rather that at the bottom the kettle was cold while at the top it was just pleasantly warm. When the heretic beheld this he was greatly confused and thrust his hand into the kettle saying, "My faith will aid me." As soon as his hand had been thrust in all the flesh was boiled off the bones clear up to the elbow. And so the dispute ended.

Questions:

1. Describe the dispute between the Arian priest and the Roman Catholic deacon.
2. What truth was illustrated when the deacon from Ravenna plunged his arm into the kettle?
3. Do you think this account is factual? Why or why not?

***Charlemagne's Missi Dominici***

In 802 Charlemagne issued a general capitulary (law) outlining the responsibilities of his envoys, the missi dominici; what follows is the preamble of this lengthy document. Notice the moralistic tone.

Therefore, the most serene and most Christian lord emperor Charles has chosen from his nobles the wisest and most prudent men, both archbishops and some of the other bishops also, and venerable abbots and pious laymen, and has sent them throughout his whole kingdom, and through them by all the following chapters has allowed men to live in accordance with the correct law. Moreover, where anything which is not right and just has been enacted in the law, he has ordered them to inquire into this most diligently and to inform him of it; he desires, God granting, to reform it.

And let no one, through his cleverness or astuteness, dare to oppose or thwart the written law, as many are wont to do, or the judicial sentence passed upon him, or to do injury to the churches of God or the poor or the widows or the wards or any Christian. But all shall live entirely in accordance with God's precept, justly and under a just rule, and each one shall be admonished to live in harmony with his fellows in his business or profession; the canonical clergy ought to observe in every respect a canonical life without heeding base gain, nuns ought to keep diligent watch over their lives, laymen and the secular clergy ought rightly to observe their laws without malicious fraud, and all ought to live in mutual charity and perfect peace.

And let the missi themselves make a diligent investigation whenever any man claims that an injustice has been done to him by any one, just as they desire to deserve the grace of omnipotent God and to keep their fidelity promised to Him, so that entirely in all cases everywhere, in accordance with the will and fear of God, they shall administer the law fully and faithfully in the case of the holy churches of God and of the poor, of wards and widows and of the whole people.

And if there shall be anything of such a nature that they, together with the provincial counts, are not able of themselves to correct it and do justice concerning it, they shall, without any ambiguity, refer this, together with their reports, to the judgment of the emperor; and the straight path of justice shall not be impeded by any one on account of flattery or gifts from any one, or on account of any relationship, or from fear of the powerful.

Questions:

1. According to the document, describe the missi dominici.
2. Define canonical; define diligent.
3. With what kind of impropriety was the document concerned regarding the "straight path of justice?"
4. How effective were these missions likely to be in practice? Explain.

***The Elimination of Medieval Forests***

One of the interesting environmental changes of the Middle Ages was the elimination of millions of acres of forest to create new areas of arable land and to meet the demand for timber. Timber was used as fuel and to build houses, mills of all kinds, bridges, fortresses, and ships. Incredible quantities of wood were burned to make charcoal for the iron forges. The clearing of the forests caused the price of wood to skyrocket by the thirteenth century. This document from 1140 illustrates the process. Suger, the abbot of Saint-Denis, needed thirty-five-foot beams for the construction of a new church. His master carpenters told him that there were no longer any trees big enough in the area around Paris and that he would have to go far afield to find such tall trees. This selection recounts his efforts.

Suger's Search for the Wooden Beams

On a certain night, when I had returned from celebrating Matins, I began to think in bed that I myself should go through the forests of these parts....Quickly disposing of all duties and hurrying up in the early morning, we hastened with our carpenters, and with the measurements of the beams, to the forest called Iveline. When we traversed our possession in the Valley of Chevreuse we summoned...the keepers of our own forests as well as men who know about other woods, and questioned them under oath whether we would fine there, no matter with how much trouble, any timbers of that measure. At this they smiled, or rather would have laughed at us if they had dared; they wondered whether we were quite ignorant of the fact that nothing of the kind could be found in the entire region, especially since Milon, the Castellan of Chevreuse....had left nothing unimpaired or untouched that could be used for palisades and bulwarks while he was long subjected to wars both by our Lord the King and Amaury de Montfort. We however--scorning whatever they might say--began, with the courage of our faith as it were, to search through the woods; and toward the first hour we found one timber adequate to the measure. Why say more? By the ninth hour or sooner, we had, through the thickets, the depths of the forest and the dense, thorny tangles, marked down twelve timbers (for so many were necessary) to the astonishment of all....

Questions:

1. How did the people of the forest area respond to the queries about usable timber?
2. Why were large timbers so hard to find in that particular region?
3. What was the result of the timber search?

***Pollution in a Medieval City***

Environmental pollution is not new to the twentieth century. Medieval cities and towns had their own problems with filthy living conditions. This excerpt is taken from an order sent by the king of England to the town of Boutham, a suburb of York, which was then being used by the king as headquarters in a war with the Scots. It demands rectification of the town's pitiful physical conditions.

The King's Command to Boutham

To the bailiffs of the abbot of St. Mary's, York, at Boutham. Whereas it is sufficiently evident that the pavement of the said town of Boutham is so very greatly broke up that all and singular passing and going through that town sustain immoderate damages and grievances, and in addition the air is so corrupted and infected by the pigsties situated in the king's highways and in the lanes of that town and by the swine feeding and frequently wandering about in the streets and lanes and by dung and dunghills and many other foul things placed in the streets and lanes, that great repugnance overtakes the king's ministers staying in that town and also others there dwelling and passing through, the advantage of more wholesome air is impeded; the state of men is grievously injured, and other unbearable inconveniences and many other injuries are known to proceed from such corruption, to the nuisance of the king's ministers aforesaid and of others there dwelling and passing through, and to the peril of their lives....the king, being unwilling longer to tolerate such great and unbearable defects there, orders the bailiffs to cause the pavement to be suitably repaired within their liberty before All Saints next, and to cause the pigsties, aforesaid streets and lanes to be cleansed from all dung and dunghills, and to cause proclamation to be made throughout their bailiwick forbidding any one, under pain of grievous forfeiture, to cause or permit their swine to feed or wander outside his house in the king's streets or the lanes aforesaid.

Questions:

1. What were the major complaints of the king regarding Boutham's pollution problem?
2. Why were the road's such a priority in the king's orders?
3. How was the problem of dunghills resolved?

***The Way of the Young Aristocrat***

At the age of seven or eight, boys were sent either to a clerical school to pursue a religious career or to another nobleman's castle where they prepared for the life of the nobility. The chief lessons at a castle were military. They learned how to joust, hunt, ride, and handle weapons properly. Occasionally, aristocrat's sons might also learn the fundamentals of reading and writing.

At about the age of twenty-one, a young man formally entered the adult world in a ceremony of knighting. A sponsor put a sword on the young candidate and struck him on the cheek or neck with an open hand. Later the practice arose in which the sponsor touched the candidate three times on the shoulder with the blade of a sword. This probably symbolized the passing of the sponsor's military courage to the new knight.

After his initiation into the world of warriors, a young man returned home to find himself once again subject to his parent's authority. Young men were discouraged from marrying until their fathers died, at which time they could marry and become lords of the castle. Trained to be warriors without adult responsibilities, young knights had little to do but fight. This was destructive to their society. In the twelfth century, tournaments began to appear as a way to keep young knights busy. At first, tournaments consisted of the melee, in which warriors on horseback fought with blunted weapons in free-for-all combat. By the late twelfth century, the joust--individual combat between two knight--had become the main part of the tournament. Knights saw tournaments as an excellent way to train for war. As one knight explained: "A knight cannot distinguish himself in war if he has not trained for it in tourneys. He must have seen his blood flow, heard his teeth crack under fist blows, felt his opponent's weight bear down upon him as he lay on the ground."

Young girls took quite a different path. Childhood ended early for the daughters of aristocrats. Aristocratic girls were married in their teens (usually at the age of fifteen or sixteen). Because they were expected by their husbands to assume their responsibilities at once, the training of girls in a large body of practical knowledge could never start too early. Girls were sent at an early age to the castles of other nobles for their upbringing and were trained there as ladies-in-waiting. The lady of the castle taught them sewing, weaving, and all the skills needed for running an estate. They also learned some reading and writing, dancing, singing, and how to play musical instruments.

Questions:

1. Explain the upbringing of aristocratic young men in the High Middle Ages.
2. Explain the upbringing of aristocratic young women in the High Middle Ages.
3. What was the significance of the tournaments for young knights?

***Eleanor of Aquitaine***

Eleanor of Aquitaine was one of the more remarkable personalities of twelfth-century Europe. Heiress to the duchy of Aquitaine in southwestern France, she was married at the age of fifteen to King Louis VII of France. The marriage was not a happy one. Louis was too pious for Eleanor, and she invited minstrels from southern France to brighten the French court with music, much to her husband's displeasure.

Eleanor went with her husband on the Second Crusade but soon caused a scandal by ignoring her husband and staying with Prince Raymond of Antioch, her tall and handsome uncle. In 1149, Louis and Eleanor returned home, but on separate ships. In 1152, Louis had their marriage annulled. Eleanor promptly created another scandal by marrying again, only eight weeks later. Her choice was Duke Henry of Normandy, who soon became King Henry II of England.

Henry II and Eleanor had a stormy relationship. She spent much time abroad in her native Aquitaine, where she paid special attention to creating a brilliant court dedicated to cultural activities. She and Henry had eight children (five were sons). Eleanor sought to further their careers, even assisting her sons in rebelling against the king (their father) in 1173 and 1174. She was imprisoned by her husband for her activities. After Henry's death, however, Eleanor again assumed an active political life, providing both military and political support for her sons. Two of her sons--Richard and John--became king of England.

Questions:

1. What were some of Eleanor of Aquitaine's accomplishments?
2. Why was Eleanor's behavior considered scandalous?

***Harnessing the Power of Wind and Water***

In the High Middle Ages, the powers of water and wind were harnessed to do jobs that humans or animals once did. The watermill, or mill powered by water, was invented as early as the second century B.C. It was not used much in the Roman Empire, however. The Romans had an abundant source of labor from slaves and thus had no need to mechanize. In the High Middle Ages, the use of metals spread and made the watermill easier to build. The watermill then came into widespread use. In 1086, the survey of English land known as the Domesday Book listed 6,000 watermills in England. Located along streams, mills powered by water were used to grind grains for flour. Dams were even built to increase waterpower. The development of the cam enabled mill operators to mechanize entire industries. Waterpower was used in mills for making cloth and in sawmills for cutting wood and stone, as well as to power triphammers for the working of metals.

Cistercian monks especially made use of the new technology surrounding waterpower. The following excerpt from a twelfth-century report describes how one Cistercian monastery made use of a local stream to grind grain and make cloth:

Entering the Abbey under the boundary wall, the stream first hurls itself at the mill where in a flurry of movement it strains itself, first to crush the wheat beneath the weight of the millstones, then to shake the fine sieve which separates flour from bran....The stream does not yet consider itself discharged. The fullers [people who shrank and thickened woolen cloth to finish its manufacture] established near the mill beckon to it. In the mill it had been occupied in preparing food for the brothers; it is therefore only right that it should now look to their clothing. It never shrinks back or refuses to do anything that is asked for. One by one it lifts and drops the heavy pestles, the fullers' great wooden hammers...and spares, thus, the monks' great fatigues. How many horses would be worn out, how many men would have weary arms if this graceful river, to whom we owe our clothes and food, did not labor for us.

Rivers, however, were not always available or easily dammed. Where this was the case, Europeans developed windmills to harness the power of the wind. Historians are unsure whether windmills were imported into Europe (they were invented in Persia) or designed independently by Europeans. In either case, by the end of the twelfth century, windmills were beginning to dot the European landscape. Like the watermill, the windmill was first used for grinding grain. Later, however, windmills were used for pumping water and even cutting wood. However, watermills offered a greater range of possible uses.

The watermill and windmill were the most important devices for the harnessing of power before the invention of the steam engine in the eighteenth century. Their spread had revolutionary consequences in enabling Europeans to produce more food and to make the manufacture of a wide array of products easier.

Questions:

1. Why did Europeans of the High Middle Ages need these forms of power more than the Romans?
2. What were the main purposes for using waterpower?
3. For what purpose was the windmill used?