Racism:

• German Volk (nation, people, race)
• Houston Stewart Chamberlain: Germans successors of Aryans
  Mission: save Western civilization from lower races
• Jews singled out by extreme nationalists (biological enemy)

Jewish Emancipation & Anti-Semitism: Austria & Germany

• Ideas of French Revolution/Enlightenment helped Jews
  Many left ghettos and assimilated
• Karl Lueger: mixed anti-semitism with worker agitation
  Jews blamed for corruption of German culture (incompatibility)
• Racial anti-Semitism: conversion to Christianity no longer adequate

Return to Palestine?

• Pogroms (organized massacres) common
• Russia: quotas for schools/regional segregation
• Zionism: influenced by nationalist movements for independence
• Theodor Herzl: establish a Jewish state